2: Earth and Space

2.1: Understand and apply knowledge of energy in the earth system.

2.1.1: Earth systems have internal and external sources of energy, both of which create heat. The sun is the major external source of energy. Two primary sources of internal energy are the decay of radioactive isotopes and the gravitational energy from the earth?s original formation.

Energy Conversions
Gravitational Force
Gravity Pitch
Herschel Experiment
Nuclear Decay
Orbital Motion - Kepler's Laws
Tides

2.1.2: The outward transfer of Earth?s internal heat drives convection circulation in the mantle that propels the plates comprising the earth?s surface across the face of the globe.

Plate Tectonics

2.1.3: Heating of the earth?s surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere and oceans, producing winds and ocean currents.

Energy Conversions
Phase Changes
Solar System Explorer
Tides

2.1.4: Global climate is determined by energy transfer from the sun at and near the earth?s surface. This energy transfer is influenced by dynamic processes such as cloud cover and the earth?s rotation, and static conditions such as the position of mountain ranges and oceans.

Energy Conversion in a System
Energy Conversions

2.2: Understand and apply knowledge of Geochemical cycles.

2.2.1: The earth is a system containing essentially a fixed amount of each stable chemical atom or element. Each element can exist in several different chemical reservoirs. Each element on Earth moves among reservoirs in the solid Earth, oceans, atmosphere, and organisms as part of geochemical cycles.

Element Builder
Moon Phases
Moonrise, Moonset, and Phases
Tides

2.3: Understand and apply knowledge of origin and evolution of the earth system.

2.3.1: The sun, the earth, and the rest of the solar system formed from a nebular cloud of dust and gas 10 to 15 billion years ago. The early Earth was very different from the planet on which we live today.

Solar System Explorer

2.3.2: Geologic time can be estimated by observing rock sequences and using fossils to correlate the sequences at various locations. Current methods for measuring geologic time include using the known decay rates of radioactive isotopes present in rocks to measure the time since the rock was formed.

Human Evolution - Skull Analysis

2.3.3: Interactions among the solid Earth, the oceans, the atmosphere, and organisms have resulted in the ongoing evolution of the earth system. We can observe some changes such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on a human time scale, but many processes such as mountain building and plate movements take place over hundreds of millions of years.

Plate Tectonics

2.3.4: Evidence for one-celled forms of life?the microbes?extends back more than 3.5 billion years. The evolution of life caused dramatic changes in the composition of the earth?s atmosphere, which did not originally contain oxygen.

Human Evolution - Skull Analysis
Paramecium Homeostasis

2.4: Understand and apply knowledge of origin and evolution of the Universe.

2.4.3: Stars produce energy from nuclear reactions, primarily the fusion of hydrogen to form helium. These and other processes in stars have led to the formation of all the other elements.

Element Builder

3: Physical Science

3.1: Understand and apply knowledge of the structure of atoms.

3.1.1: Matter is made of minute particles called atoms, and atoms are composed of even smaller components. These components have measurable properties, such as mass and electrical charge. Each atom has a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The electric force between the nucleus and electrons holds the atom together.

Bohr Model of Hydrogen
Bohr Model: Introduction
Charge Launcher
Coulomb Force (Static)
Element Builder
Nuclear Decay

3.1.2: The atom?s nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons, which are much more massive than electrons. When an element has atoms that differ in the number of neutrons, these atoms are called different isotopes of the element.

Bohr Model of Hydrogen
Bohr Model: Introduction
Covalent Bonds
Electron Configuration
Element Builder
Ionic Bonds
Nuclear Decay

3.1.3: The nuclear forces that hold the nucleus of an atom together, at nuclear distances, are usually stronger than the electric forces that would make it fly apart. Nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy, and they can release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions. Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces. Fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure, and is the process responsible for the energy of the sun and other stars.

Nuclear Decay

3.1.4: Radioactive isotopes are unstable and undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions, emitting particles and/or wavelike radiation. The decay of any one nucleus cannot be predicted, but a large group of identical nuclei decay at a predictable rate. This predictability can be used to estimate the age of materials that contain radioactive isotopes.

Half-life
Nuclear Decay

3.2: Understand and apply knowledge of the structure and properties of matter.

3.2.1: Atoms interact with one another by transferring or sharing electrons that are the furthest from the nucleus. These outer electrons govern the chemical properties of the element.

Bohr Model of Hydrogen
Bohr Model: Introduction
Electron Configuration
Element Builder

3.2.2: An element is composed of a single type of atom. When elements are listed in order according to the number of protons (called the atomic number), repeating patterns of physical and chemical properties identify families of elements with similar properties. This ?Periodic Table? is a consequence of the repeating pattern of outermost electrons and their permitted energies.

Bohr Model of Hydrogen
Bohr Model: Introduction
Electron Configuration
Element Builder
Nuclear Decay

3.2.3: Bonds between atoms are created when electrons are paired up by being transferred or shared. A substance composed of a single kind of atom is called an element. The atoms may be bonded together into molecules or crystalline solids. A compound is formed when two or more kinds of atoms bind together chemically.

Bohr Model of Hydrogen
Bohr Model: Introduction
Electron Configuration
Element Builder
Limiting Reactants

3.2.4: Solids, liquids, and gases differ in the distances and angles between molecules or atoms and, therefore, the energy that binds them together. In solids the structure is nearly rigid; in liquids molecules or atoms move around each other but do not move apart; and in gases molecules or atoms move almost independently of each other and are mostly far apart.

Freezing Point of Salt Water
Temperature and Particle Motion

3.2.5: Carbon atoms can bond to one another in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of structures, including synthetic polymers, oils, and the large molecules essential to life.

Bohr Model of Hydrogen
Bohr Model: Introduction
Covalent Bonds
Dehydration Synthesis
Electron Configuration
Ionic Bonds
Limiting Reactants
Nuclear Decay

3.3: Understand and apply knowledge of chemical reactions.

3.3.1: ?Chemical reactions? is an essential concept of a world-class secondary science curriculum. Included in ?chemical reactions? is the following content: Chemical reactions occur all around us, for example in health care, cooking, cosmetics, and automobiles. Complex chemical reactions involving carbon-based molecules take place constantly in every cell in our bodies.

Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical Equation Balancing
Covalent Bonds
Dehydration Synthesis
Ionic Bonds
Limiting Reactants

3.3.2: Chemical reactions may release or consume energy. Some reactions such as the burning of fossil fuels release large amounts of energy by losing heat and by emitting light. Light can initiate many chemical reactions such as photosynthesis and the evolution of urban smog.

Energy Conversions
Photosynthesis Lab

3.3.3: A large number of important reactions involve the transfer of either electrons (oxidation/reduction reactions) or hydrogen ions (acid/base reactions) between reacting ions, molecules, or atoms. In other reactions, chemical bonds are broken by heat or light to form very reactive radicals with electrons ready to form new bonds. Radical reactions control many processes such as the presence of ozone and greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, burning and processing of fossil fuels, the formation of polymers, and explosions.

Electron Configuration
Element Builder

3.3.4: Chemical reactions can take place in time periods ranging from the few femtoseconds (10 ? 15 seconds) required for an atom to move a fraction of a chemical bond distance to geologic time scales of billions of years. Reaction rates depend on how often the reacting atoms and molecules encounter one another, the temperature, and the properties?including shape?of the reacting elements.

Collision Theory
Temperature and Particle Motion

3.3.5: Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied. Laws of motion are used to calculate precisely the effects of forces on the motion of objects. The magnitude of the change in motion can be calculated using the relationship F = ma, which is independent of the nature of the force. Whenever one object exerts force on another, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction is exerted on the first object.

2D Collisions
Air Track
Atwood Machine
Fan Cart Physics
Force and Fan Carts
Uniform Circular Motion

3.4: Understand and apply knowledge of motions and forces.

3.4.1: Gravitation is a universal force that each mass exerts on any other mass. The strength of the gravitational attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Gravitational Force
Gravity Pitch

3.4.2: The electric force is a universal force that exists between any two charged objects. Opposite charges attract, while like charges repel. The strength of the force is proportional to the charges, and, as with gravitation, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Charge Launcher
Coulomb Force (Static)
Pith Ball Lab

3.4.3: Between any two charged particles, electric force is vastly greater than the gravitational force. Most observable forces such as those exerted by a coiled spring or friction may be traced to electric forces acting between atoms and molecules.

Charge Launcher
Gravity Pitch
Pith Ball Lab

3.5: Understand and apply knowledge of conservation of energy and increase in disorder.

3.5.1: ?Conservation of energy and increase in disorder? is an essential concept of a world-class secondary science curriculum. Included in ?conservation of energy and increase in disorder? is the following content: The total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by light waves and other radiations, and in many other ways. However, it can never be destroyed. As these transfers occur, the matter involved becomes steadily less ordered.

Energy Conversions
Nuclear Decay
Radiation

3.5.2: All energy can be considered to be either kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion; potential energy, which depends on relative position; or energy contained by a field, such as electromagnetic waves.

Air Track
Energy Conversion in a System
Energy Conversions
Energy of a Pendulum
Inclined Plane - Rolling Objects
Inclined Plane - Simple Machine
Inclined Plane - Sliding Objects
Period of a Pendulum
Potential Energy on Shelves
Roller Coaster Physics
Simple Harmonic Motion

3.6: Understand and apply knowledge of interactions of energy and matter.

3.6.1: ?Interactions of energy and matter? is an essential concept of a world-class secondary science curriculum. Included in ?interactions of energy and matter? is the following content: Waves, including sound and seismic waves, waves on water, and light waves have energy and can transfer energy when they interact with matter.

Longitudinal Waves
Sound Beats and Sine Waves

3.6.2: Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated. Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. The energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.

Color Absorption
Radiation

4: Life Science

4.1: Understand and apply knowledge of the cell.

4.1.1: Cells have particular structures that underlie their functions. Every cell is surrounded by a membrane that separates it from the outside world. Inside the cell is a concentrated mixture of thousands of different molecules which form a variety of specialized structures, notably the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts, and the endoplasmic reticulum. Some cells have external structures facilitating movement (cilia and flagella).

Cell Energy Cycle
Cell Structure
Osmosis
Photosynthesis Lab
RNA and Protein Synthesis

4.1.2: Most cell functions involve chemical reactions. Food molecules taken into cells react to provide the chemical constituents needed to synthesize other molecules. Both breakdown and synthesis are made possible by protein catalysts, called enzymes.

Cell Structure
Prairie Ecosystem

4.1.3: The chemical bonds of food molecules contain energy. Energy is released when the bonds of food molecules are broken and new compounds with lower energy bonds are formed. Cells temporarily store this energy in phosphate bonds of a small high-energy compound called ATP.

Cell Energy Cycle
Photosynthesis Lab
Prairie Ecosystem

4.1.4: Cell regulation allows cells to respond to their environment and to control and coordinate cell growth and division. Environmental factors can influence cell division.

Cell Division

4.1.5: Plant cells contain chloroplasts as sites of photosynthesis. Plants and many microorganisms use solar energy to combine molecules of carbon dioxide and water into complex, energy rich organic compounds and release oxygen to the environment.

Cell Energy Cycle
Interdependence of Plants and Animals
Photosynthesis Lab

4.2: Understand and apply knowledge of the molecular basis of heredity.

4.2.1: In all organisms, the instructions for specifying the characteristics of the organism are carried in DNA, a large polymer formed from subunits of four kinds (A, G, C, and T). The chemical and structural properties of DNA explain how the genetic information that underlies heredity is both encoded in genes (as a string of molecular ?letters?) and replicated (by a templating mechanism). DNA mutations occur spontaneously at low rates. Some of these changes make no difference to the organism, whereas others can change cells and organisms. Some mutations can be caused by environmental factors.

Evolution: Mutation and Selection

4.2.2: Each DNA molecule in a cell forms a single chromosome.

Building DNA
Cell Division
Human Karyotyping
RNA and Protein Synthesis

4.2.3: Most of the cells in a human contain two copies of each of 22 different chromosomes plus two chromosomes that determine sex: a female contains two X chromosomes and a male contains one X and one Y. Transmission of genetic information to offspring occurs through meiosis that produces egg and sperm cells that contain only one representative from each chromosome pair. An egg and a sperm unite to form a new individual.

Human Karyotyping

4.2.4: The fact that an organism is formed from cells that contain two copies of each chromosome, and therefore two copies of each gene, explains many features of heredity, such as how variations that are hidden in one generation can be expressed in the next. Different genes coding for the same feature code for it in different ways thus leading to identifiable patterns in heritable traits. These patterns of inheritance can be identified and predicted.

Chicken Genetics
Evolution: Mutation and Selection
Human Karyotyping
Microevolution
Mouse Genetics (One Trait)
Mouse Genetics (Two Traits)
Natural Selection

4.3: Understand and apply knowledge of biological evolution.

4.3.1: Species evolve over time. Evolution is the consequence of the interactions of (1) the potential for a species to increase its numbers, (2) the genetic variability of offspring due to mutation and recombination of genes, and (3) a finite supply of the resources required for life, and (4) the ensuing selection by the environment of those offspring better able to survive and leave offspring.

Evolution: Mutation and Selection
Human Evolution - Skull Analysis
Natural Selection

4.3.2: Natural selection and its evolutionary consequences provide a scientific explanation for the fossil record of ancient life forms, as well as for the striking molecular similarities observed among the diverse species of living organisms. The great diversity of organisms is the result of more than 3.5 billion years of evolution that has filled every available niche with life forms.

Evolution: Mutation and Selection
Human Evolution - Skull Analysis
Natural Selection

4.3.3: The millions of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live on Earth today are related by descent from common ancestors.

Human Evolution - Skull Analysis

4.4: Understand and apply knowledge of the interdependence of organisms.

4.4.2: Energy flows through ecosystems in one direction, from photosynthetic organisms to herbivores to carnivores and decomposers. These tropic levels can be illustrated by food chains and food webs.

Food Chain
Forest Ecosystem
Prairie Ecosystem

4.4.3: Organisms both cooperate and compete in ecosystems. The interrelationships and interdependencies of these organisms may generate ecosystems that are stable for hundreds or thousands of years.

Diffusion
Forest Ecosystem
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Interdependence of Plants and Animals
Osmosis
Prairie Ecosystem

4.4.4: Human beings live within the world?s ecosystems. Increasingly, humans modify ecosystems as a result of population growth, technology, and consumption. Human destruction of habitats through direct harvesting, pollution, atmospheric changes, and other factors are threatening current global stability, and if not addressed, ecosystems will be irreversibly affected.

Prairie Ecosystem
Water Pollution

4.5: Understand and apply knowledge of the interdependence of matter, energy, and organization of living systems.

4.5.1: Living systems require a continuous input of energy, derived primarily from the sun, to maintain their chemical and physical organization. Plants capture energy by absorbing light and using it to form strong (covalent) chemical bonds between the atoms of carbon containing (organic) molecules. These molecules can be used to assemble larger molecules (proteins, DNA, sugars, and fats). The chemical energy stored in bonds between the atoms can be used as sources of energy for life processes.

Cell Energy Cycle
Energy Conversions
Interdependence of Plants and Animals
Photosynthesis Lab
Pond Ecosystem
Prairie Ecosystem

4.5.2: Living organisms have the capacity to produce populations of infinite size, but environments and resources are finite. The distribution and abundance of organisms and populations in ecosystems are limited by the availability of matter and energy and the ability of the ecosystem to recycle materials.

Food Chain
Forest Ecosystem
Prairie Ecosystem
Rabbit Population by Season

4.5.3: All matter tends toward more disorganized states. Living systems require a continuous input of energy to maintain their chemical and physical organizations.

Food Chain

4.5.4: As matter and energy flows through different levels of organization of living systems?cells, organs, organisms, communities?and between living systems and the physical environment, chemical elements are recombined in different ways. Each recombination results in storage and dissipation of energy into the environment as heat. Matter and energy are conserved in each change.

Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical Equation Balancing
Prairie Ecosystem
Stoichiometry

4.6: Understand and apply knowledge of the interdependence of the behavior of organisms.

4.6.1: Multicellular animals have nervous systems that generate behavior. Nervous systems are formed from specialized cells that conduct signals rapidly through the long cell extensions that make up nerves. The nerve cells communicate with each other by secreting specific excitatory and inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, specialized cells detect light, sound, and specific chemicals and enable animals to monitor what is going on in the world around them.

Cell Energy Cycle
Interdependence of Plants and Animals
Longitudinal Waves
Photosynthesis Lab
Sound Beats and Sine Waves